Boeotia in the Frankish Period (1204-1460)

1. Franks (1204 – 1311)

At the end of 1204, Boniface, marquis of Montferrat (Bonifacio del Montferrato), set up to claim those territories granted to him according to the Partitio Romaniae, and reached Boeotia where "he was greeted with great joy" (Niketas Choniates, Historia, ch. V). Later, he granted his small state to the Burgundian noble Otto de la Roche. Otto bore the title of dominus Athnenarum or Sire d’Athènes (Megas Kyr or Megas Kyres), while from his successor Guy onwards the rulers of this state bore the title of Duke (fig. 4). Due to the marriage between Bela de Saint- Omer and Guy de la Roche’s daughter (1230-1240) Bonne, the authority of Thebes was divided between the two families. The last representative of the Frankish rule was Gautier de Brienne (1308- 1311), son of Isabelle de la Roche and Hugues de Brienne.

Although the Duchy of Athens included a vast coastline and major harbours (Piraeus, Nauplion [fig.1], Atalanti, Livadostra), seafaring was not quite developed, since it was prohibited by Venice; as far as trade is concerned, mostly the harbour of Livadostra was used. In the 13th century many Franks came to the Duchy, mostly belonging to the lesser nobility, judging from the lack of large baron castles, as those built in the Peloponnesos; while great lineages and local lords seem absent in the years right before or right after the conquest, in contrast to Crete, Chalkis, Morea.

Thebes remained the administrative, political and economical centre of the region (fig. 2, fig. 3) with a flourishing small industry, silk-industry and commerce. In the city were accumulated Venetian and Genoese traders, to whom many privileges were granted, while the Jewish community remained powerful. The economic prosperity is attested by the numismatic evidence and mainly by the existence of a mint which functioned continuously until at least 1311 (fig. 5). Furthermore, a workshop of metalsmithing has been attested, with high-quality examples of its production (fig. 6, fig. 7). In 1208 pope Innocent III founded the archbishopric of Athens: “Archiepiscopo Thebano et Damaliensi et Zaratoniensi episcopis”. The Franks established the feudal system and the Greeks were excluded from the administration, keeping only the right to exercise the profession of notary.

The towers of feudal lords scattered in the land of Boeotia reveal the military nature of the rulers, as well as the general insecurity that prevailed (fig. 8). The new fortification of Thebes and the Great Palace were constructed by Nicola II de Saint –Omer (1287 –1289). The palace, famous for its frescoes depicting the exploits of the Crusaders in the Holy Lands, is described as the perfect baron’s house in the whole of Romania. Few parts from these fortifications survive: the tower known as the Tower of Santameri, inside the courtyard of the Archaeological Museum of Thebes (fig. 9), another tower to the south of Kadmeia (tower in the property of Ktistakes) and some fragmentry parts of the walls. A few remains survive from the settlement of Thebes, which probably had a different fortified circuit (castrum Destives), as well from the other fortified settlements in the countryside (fig. 2). The countryside with its rural econmy and agricultural production was also flourishing.

Such conditions were encouraging a flourish also in cultural and artistic production, due to contacts with the West and other Latin-held regions, and due to the vitality of Byzantine tradition which was evident in different aspects of everyday life and art. In the whole, French society and mentality were never assimilated and its impact soon faded out.

2. Catalans (1311- 1379)

The initial cooperation, in 1308, between Gautier de Brienne and the Great Catalan Company led to frictions and the battle of Halmyros in 1311, resulting in the destruction of the Frankish forces and the foundation of a new Catalan state in the region, annexing the Duchy of Neopatra and parts of Thessaly. Later, internal conflicts and external enemies weakened the new Catalan states, which finally came under the crown of Aragon in 1379.

The cities of Attica and Boeotia suffered great damages, as well as heavy blows in their social institutions by the Catalans, who established in Greece political, military and administrative institutions following their mentality and traditions. The legal code known as Articles or Statutes (Els Capitols de la Companyia), which was based on the Usages of Barcelona, defined the relations between rulers and people, while the municipal local system replaced the Frankish feudal organization. Every city had its own governor, a "castellano" or "capitano" and separate municipal authorities with representatives in the central council. The general commissioner was appointed by the Duke, to whom he gave his oath of fidelity. Official language became the Catalan (lengua catalane) and the most important administrative documents bore the shield of St. George, protector of Catalonia.

The Catalans were organized in closed social and religious groups to preserve their racial integrity and ensure their survival. The Greeks were forbidden to marry women of Catholic creed, to hold landed estates and exercise whatever profession, except that of notary.

From the written sources we are informed that the intellectual life in the Catalan-held Greece was almost nonexistent. Commerce to Barcelona and Majorca flourished, while at the same time Thebes had become a slave trade center. As the head city in the Duchy, Thebes had its own authorities and collected taxes from imported and exported goods.

In 1331, the Catalans destroyed the famous castle of Thebes in order not to fall in the hands of Walter de Brienne, heir of the last duke of Athens, who tried to recover the lands he had inherited. Livadeia became the most important city in Boeotia and the Catalans gave to the castle its current form (fig. 10), with two fortified circuits which were reinforced with towers, an outer fortified precinct and an additional enclosure on the top of the hill, which probably included the commander's house.

After 1348, the plague epidemic and the continuous Turkish raids, as well as the clash among the Franks, the Byzantines and the Turks almost led to the abandonment of the settlements in the countryside and the decline of rural life.

3. Navarrese Military Company (1379 -1388)

In 1379, the Navarrese Company with Juan de Urtubia in charge, and in cooperation with the mercenary troops of Nerio I Accaijuoli, gradually conquered the whole of Boeotia, expelling the Catalans from the unfortified Thebes and taking over Livadeia in 1380. Their dominion, however, did not expand and they stayed in Boeotia until its surrender to the Accaijuoli.

4. The Florentine Accaijuoli (1388 – 1460)

The castle of Livadeia passed under the rule of Nerio I Accaijuoli in 1380 and Thebes in 1388. This first Florentine duke of Athens (he received his title in 1394), became the first ruler who paid tribute to the sultan, since Boeotia had fallen in the hands of Evrenos Bay in 1391-2.

Nerio I bequeathed Thebes and Livadeia to Antonio, his illegitimate son from the Greek Maria Renti. In 1394 sultan Bayezid I took over Livadeia and a large part of the Duchy’s territories, while the rest of Boeotia became its tributary. Sultan’s defeat in Ankara in 1402prolonged the life of the Frankish dominion in Southern Greece. Antonio Accaijuoli became the longest-lived Latin ruler of the Duchy, which he governed until his death in 1435, under Ottoman and Venetian suzerainty. During this period Boeotia was spilt into three zones: the Venetian coastal zone of 5 miles from Atalanti to Oropos, the Ottoman zone north and east of Livadeia and the Florentine zone in the centre, including Thebes and Livadeia.

The Accaijuoli followed a pro-Greek policy, as the only means to confront the Turkish threat. Within this climate, Nerio appointed a Greek metropolitan in Athens and established Greek as the official language, which made many Florentines translate their names into Greek, sign in Greek and Greeks appointed as secretaries and notaries. Antonio signed in Greek, too: "Αντώνιος δε Ατζαϊόλλης και αυθέντης Αθηνών, Θηβών, παντός δουκιάμου και των εξής". It is also attested that some Greek "elders" participated in the administration.

The socio-economic conditions contributed to the emergence of old Athenian families that had disappeared during the Catalan rule. In addition, the fact that Florence in the 14th century was the centre of Hellenic studies, created the conditions for the local population to develop cultural and intellectual activities. Many Florentine merchants had also converged in the Duchy, thanks to the privileges they enjoyed. The abandonment of the Boeotian countryside during the previous years was confronted with the gradual settlement of groups of Albanian nomads.

5. Turbulent period: loose Ottoman and brief Byzantine dominion (1435- 1460)

Sultan Murad II saw suspiciously the efforts of the Chalkokondyles family and the widow of Anthony, Maria Melissene, to cast out Frankish rule, as well as the initiative of a group of Athenians to come into contact with the Despotate of Mystras and Constantine Palaiologos. In an effort to thwart those attempts, he sent Turachan Bey of Thessaly to conquer Thebes and Boeotia. Meanwhile, he allowed Nerio II Accaijuoli to preserve his title, by becoming his tributary.

Attica and Boeotia experienced a short period of freedom, when in 1444 Constantine Palaiologos, trying to restore the territories of the Byzantine Empire, seized Athens and Thebes and forced Nerio to recognize his suzerainty. Constantine’s army, however, suffered a great defeat by the Turks at Hexamilion in 1446 and the region came back to its previous status, making Boeotia a secure pass towards the Isthmus. Between 1446 and 1460, personal interests and conflicts among local beys led to the preservation of the status of loose Ottoman rule.

In 1456, Muhammad, after the conquest of Athens, appointed Franco Accaijuoli commander of Thebes, who was serving in the sultan’s army, and finally in 1460 smoothly annexed it to his territories. During the first decades of the 15th century, a large part of the Boeotian countryside suffered devastation, while most of the settlements shrank. That led the Accaijuoli and the Ottomans to colonize the region with mercenaries and farmers of Albanian provenance, especially in the second half of the 15th century, a fact that played a significant role in the formation of the society. Greek and Albanian farmers and shepherds formed the basis of the economy, whereas trade and small industries in the cities declined.

Ottoman conquest found Thebes an unfortified city which remained the center of Boeotia, and Livadeia a fortified city whch had lost the privileged place it enjoyed under the Catalans.