1. Myth-genealogy

The most powerful and most important of the gods of Olympus, Zeus, is mentioned in the works of Homer as “the father of men and gods”,¹ as “supreme and most excellent of gods”,² whereas often he is invoked as Ouranios, Aitherios, Chthonios and Katachthonios. As a definitive fertility power, Zeus is connected to the natural world. His authority, however, is extended to every aspect of human life. The early Greeks perceived him as the sky-god and the god of celestial phenomena. Subsequently, he evolved into the regulator of moral order and the god who possesses all the qualities and the perfection of Being par excellence, who in wisdom and justice governs the world and determines the fate of people.

The cult of Zeus was introduced to the Aegean and Asia Minor in the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC from the first settlers of Hellenic origin. The root di(v)- of the name of the god is common in every IndoEuropean tribe. Zeus-pater of Homer is identified with Dyaus pita in Hindi (dyaus= sky), Deipatyros of the Illyrians, Juppiter or Diespiter of the Romans; all names refer back to the common Indoeuropean form Dieus pater (initial meaning “Heavenly father”). As a sky-god, Zeus maintained until the end of Antiquity his close connection to the celestial phenomena. Linguistic comparison leads to the conclusion that Zeus’ paternal attribute was a common belief of the Indoeuropeans. As the father of men and Gods he had roots older than the settling of the Greek tribes in the Eastern Mediterranean. After his encounter with the pre-existing Aegean and Eastern religion, Zeus had to be assimiliated within the pantheon of the pre-Hellenic population and the other Mediterranean people. Thus, he was identified with other pre-Hellenic deities or borrowed their cult. A result of this contact was also the creation of a very wide mythological circle of Zeus with elements of various origins, mainly Minoan and Eastern.

Comparative research proved that the genealogical myths of Zeus described in Hesiod’s Theogony do not belong to the god’s Indo-European past, neither are creations of Hesiod’s time. It is a much more ancient composition, based on the model of the theogonical myths of the Eastern Mediterranean people –mainly the Hittites and the Babylonians- concerning the establishment and succession of the royal generations of heaven. Under the influence of these myths Zeus was accordingly incorporated into the Aegean pantheon and became Cronides, namely son of the pre-Hellenic divine couple, Cronus and Rhea. With the appearance and establishment of Zeus in the Aegean, the pre-Hellenic god of the mountains Cronus, who was connected to the “mountain mother” Rhea, was displaced. From then Cronus was marginalized and until the end of Antiquity he remained the protector of the oppressed in the Greek and Roman world.

2. Birth

Zeus, son of Cronus and Rhea, belongs to the younger generation of gods. The primordial couple of Uranus and Gaia, creators of life, had preceded him in the domination of the world. Cronus, the youngest of their children, the Titans, dethroned his father and took his position as world ruler. To ascertain his power and following a certain prophecy, Cronus swallowed his first five children as soon as they were born. Rhea, to save her last child, Zeus, asked for the help of Uranus and Gaia. Following their advice, she secretly gave birth to Zeus at Lyktos of Crete. According to another common tradition the god was born in a cave located on the mountain Dikte or Ide of Crete. Also the mountain Ithome of Messenia (Zeus Ithomatas), where Zeus was nourished by the Nymphs Ithome and Neda, as well as mountain Lykaion of Arcadia, where he was nourished by the Nymphs Theisoa, Neda and Agno claim his birth. After Zeus’ birth, Rhea wrapped a stone in cloth and gave it to Cronus, who, assuming this was the new-born baby, devoured it.

3. Titanomachy

To dethrone his father, Zeus asked Metis for advice; she gave Cronus a medicine which made him vomit all his children. Then a harsh struggle between Zeus and the Titans commenced. To succeed in his cause and following the advice of Gaia, he freed some of his father’s brothers, who were imprisoned in Tartarus. After a war which lasted ten years, during which Zeus and the other gods fought from Olympus, while the Titans fought from Othrys, the Olympians prevailed. Cronus and the other Titans were thrown into the Tartarus. According to another tradition, the Titans drove Cronus away from his throne, whereas one-year-old Zeus assisted his father with the thunder given to him by the Cyclopes. Cronus, after his victory, attempted to exterminate his son. Zeus dethroned his father and imprisoned him into Tartarus.

4. Gigantomachy

The wrath of Gaia against the new gods of Olympus resulted in the birth of the Giants, who started a relentless war against Zeus, hurling rocks and flaming oaks onto the sky. After the elimination of the Giants by the Olympians, angry Gaia coupled with Tartarus and gave birth to the monstrous Typhon or Typhoeus. After successive battles, Zeus killed Typhon with his thunder.

5. Worship

The study of the epigraphic material concerning the worship of Zeus in Asia Minor showed that although there is some cultural and cultic association of the god with various older local deities of the East, his Greek roots there are nevertheless strong. The initiative for the identification of Greek Zeus with the corresponding local deities in the eastern Mediterranean was their similar cult and iconographic elements. In general we can conclude that the quality of the sky-god, the god who controls the weather or the supreme god prevails. A first overview reveals, however, differences between people, tribes and regions. For instance, the epithet “Vrondon” (the thundering), is typical for Zeus in a large part of Phrygia; in Thrace and Phrygia a Zeus Dionysus is attested; in Phrygia, Lydia and Bithynia a Zeus Savazius is verified. A tendency to emphasize his quality as a tribal god is evident in Mysia, Lydia and mainly Caria (Zeus Pratomysius, Lydius, Carius), where the Carian type of Zeus Labraundus, Panamarus or Chrysaoreus bearing a double axe is characteristic. Zeus Boussourigius from Galatia is Celtic, whereas the thunder is particularly associated with Zeus Olbius at the region of Olbe-Diocaesarea in Cilicia, which was governed by priests-princes. Another example of the close connection of the placename and the epithet of god is Zeus Olybreus from Anazarvos of Cilicia. On the contrary, the epithet Zeus Keraunius from Kestros also in Cilicia refers to the attribute of the god. From his assimilation with the Thracian-Phrygian fertility god Savazius, the cult of Zeus Savazius was officially established during the 2nd c. BC by the rulers of Pergamon and Syria. Zeus was also connected with the Hittite-Hurritic god of fertility at Doliche of Commagene; the latter was initially assimilated with the Semitic god Baal and then with the Persian Ahura Mazda, thus becoming a god of the universe. The religion of the kings of Commagene finally leads to the identification of Zeus Horomazes with the Persian Ahura Mazda, whereas finds from Doliche, showing the god standing on a bull with a thunder and a double axe, typologically allude to the Hittite weather gods. His worship, which bloomed especially during the 2nd and 3rd c. AD, was diffused in Rome and other centres by the Roman army. Juppiter Dolichenus, as he was finally named, as a sun god and guarantor of military success, was pictured on a bull holding a thunder and a double axe. Related to the Cretan Zeus must be Zeus Labrandos (or Labraundos) who was worshipped at Labraunda of Caria. The symbol of this god was the double axe, also a sacred symbol of the Minoan religion.

During the Hellenistic era mainly, Zeus became the god par excellence of the Greek world and a symbol of the idea of the divine in every possible form. Thus, he was identified with Mediterranean deities. Already from the 5th c. BC he was connected to Ammon-Ra, the dominant god of Egypt, who in Greece was worshipped in many sanctuaries as Zeus-Ammon. Among all aforementioned references, we can easily distinguish those in which the god is determined by his particularly Greek character (Vrondon, Keraunios) and those where the god is nominated by the local invocation which he maintains or by his foreign name (Savasios, Ahura Mazda). The case where through an invocation aspecial form of cult is determined in a specific place is also important (Dolichenus, Labrandos, Panamaros). For Zeus Olbius from Olbe it is certain that the invocation derives from a place name and is does not refer to the god’s qualities. This invocation is also an eloquent example of the possibility of a creative change in the interpretation of a foreign name. A relevant example constitute the invocations Labrandos and Panamaros. If the place name Labranda can be associated with the word “labrys”, that is double axe,³ then the placename as well as the invocation bear a significant testimony for the character of the god. The relation of the mountains Panamaros and Panamara is similar. Mainly coins, inscriptions on altars and sanctuaries as well as literary sources allow us to determine the cults and related festivals to honour Zeus in Asia Minor. Initially Zeus was worshipped as a sky-god. In Homer⁴ the ether is mentioned as the god’s dwelling, that is a place not touched by the winds and tempests and from where Zeus dominated the sky. His authority on weather elements, such as the lightning, the thunder and the roar is stated by surnames like Etherios Soter or Aithrios given to him by the ancient poets and the worship, as seen for example in Miletus and Priene. At Didyma the creator of rain was Zeus Omvrios and Yetios. His surnames Keraunios (Ephesus, Miletus, Priene, Termessos), Brontaios (Cyzicus), Astrapaios (Antandros, Aeolis, Nicaea of Bithynia), Kataivates (Termessos) are connected to lightings, thunders and roars.

Traces of cults of utmost antiquity of such a god are preserved on mountaintops, since from there people thought they could approach more closely the divine dwelling. In Magnesia on Meander, Smyrna and Halicarnassus the worship of Zeus is attested in sanctuaries located on summits and is connected with the epithet Acraeus, whereas in Didyma and Cyzicus Zeus was worshipped as Hypsistos (Supreme). A series of toponymic epithets, mainly refering to Mt. Olympus, are directly connected with the cult of Zeus in certain sanctuaries which were located on mountain tops (Zeus Olympios in Ephesus, Clazomenai, Miletus, Priene, Smyrna). From his main capacity as a sky-dweller, one derives Zeus’ ability to know everything is happening on the earth and to predict everything is bound to happen from his inaccessible height. This attribute is manifest also in the cult of Zeus Katachthonios, who is the god who dwells into the earth, in Termessos. Already since the time of Homer and Hesiod Zeus is called Chthonios, i.e. earth-god. This is so because, as a regulator of the weather elements, Zeus directly controls the circle of vegetation according to his will. Zeus thus becomes a god of the fertility of the land. From this attribute originate the epithets Georgos, Karpodotes and Epikarpios, as attested at Zela of the Pontus. Thus Zeus is closely related to the goddess of agriculture, Demeter. In agricultural rituals these two deities usually receive a common worship. This fertilizing activity of the god is represented in mythology by the sacred marriage of Zeus and Hera. Furthermore, the numerous love unions of the god with nymphs and mortal women alike symbolize his fertilizing influence. As a Chthonios god in the form of a snake Zeus Ktesios is present in Ephesus, originally as a daemon who protected the household. A related figure is Zeus Meilichios who was worshipped in Ephesus and Pergamon, a euphemistic invocation of a deity of chthonic character who also assumes the form of a snake. Part of Zeus’ chthonic character refers to his relation with Hades, derived from the assimilation of the chthonic gods of grain with the gods who ruled the underworld, the house of the dead.

Since early Antiquity, Zeus was connected to social life. He is responsible for the moral supervision of people and determines the moral obligations which regulate the relations among them, as well as their relations to the gods. In Kaunos of Caria Zeus as Xenios protects the foreigners (xenoi), who have no legal rights but are nevertheless considered sacred.

As a protector of the family Zeus belongs to the household gods and bears cult names such as: in Troy and Bithynion-Claudiopolis he is worshipped as Erkeios, since his altar, which was at the courtyard of a house, was protected by a fence (erkos). As Ktesios, protector of the family property, he is attested in Ephesus, Teos, Pergamon and Mylasa. In Halicarnassus and Kaunos his is worshipped as Patroos, for the protection of blood relatives. In Anazarvus of Cilicia he is known as Gamelios, since he and Hera are honoured there as protectors of marriage and conjugal life.

Zeus was worshipped also as the tprotector of the city and the government. As Zeus Polieus he is the divine lord of the city-state and is often worshipped along with Athena Polias. In Erythrae of Ionia the relation of Zeus with the city is expressed by the surname Agoraios. Finally, in Miletus, Priene, Smyrna and Pergamon, Zeus as Soter and Eleftherios protects the existence and the freedom of the city either as saviour or as liberator.

6. Iconography

The earliest surviving representations of Zeus come from vase painting, whereas for the earliest sculptural renderings of the god we are informed by philological and epigraphic sources. Already in Early Archaic vases the god presents iconographic characteristics which will prevail for long, whereas the frequency of his representations becomes higher. Zeus is presented as a mature bearded man holding the thunder, symbol of his omnipotence in heavenly and earthly events. Thematically Zeus’ images are inspired by the mythological events in which he participates: struggle with Typhon, Gigantomachy, birth of Athena, sacred marriage of Zeus with Hera, quarrel of Apollo and Heracles over the Delphic tripod, marriage of Peleus and Thetis, love affairs of Zeus with nymphs and mortal women.

There are two main iconographic types of Zeus, presented either as cult scenes or as mythological events: Zeus standing and throwing the thunder and Zeus sitting or enthroned. The model for the first type is considered to be a statue by the Argeian sculptor Ageladas in the early 5th c. BC for the sanctuary of Zeus Ithomatas in Messene. This work is known only by bronze statuettes, coins and representations on pottery.

The lack of built sanctuaries of Zeus during the Iron and Dark Age leads to the hypothesis that Zeus was worshipped initially in open-air sanctuaries. The more suitable iconographic type for a cult statue in these traditional sanctuaries was that of a naked man standing or fighting with a thunder. This type fitted Zeus’ open-air cult practice and was represented by statues in open spaces, while it was also suitable for relief compositions and vase painting. It is very possible that, before the celebrated gold and ivory statue of Zeus in Olympia, there was another cult statue of Zeus standing and holding a thunder. This type must be the one repeated on the coins of the Early Hellenistic period from Bithynia, where Doidalsas' Zeus Stratius is recognized. The supernatural head of the early 4th c. BC from Mylasa, now in Boston, most probably belongs to a statue of standing Zeus of the Carian type. The iconographic type of Zeus standing and fighting with a thunder is also present in the figure of the god from the Gigantomachy of the east side of the Pergamon altar of the 2nd c. BC.

Feidias’ Zeus Olympius was created at a time when the sculptor, exiled from Athens, had sought refuge in Helis (around 430 BC). This colossal work is known to us from images on coins of Helis during the time of Hadrian, as well as from literary sources.⁵ Zeus was seated on an elaborately wrought throne. In his right hand he held a Nike, symbol of his prevalence on the world, and in his left hand a sceptre crowned with an eagle. This type, a model of spirituality, wisdom and virtue expressing the splendour and the glory of the supreme god, is deemed ideal and became a model for later artists.

From an overview of the epigraphic, numismatic and sculptural material related to the iconographic tradition of Zeus in Asia Minor, it is obvious that the god is characterized by a strong presence in the area. Also, the variety of his invocations attests to the abundance of the various forms of worship of the supreme god. Furthermore, many older oriental deities were identified with Zeus. During the examination of the material, however, the following two phenomena are observed: there are relatively few different types of Zeus and, with the exception of certain types from Caria such as Zeus Labraundos, there is no special eastern iconography of Zeus. Although there was indeed a special iconography, as in the case of Zeus Labraundos, a work of undisputed Hellenic tradition is added, thus we knowing also of a Hellenic type, besides the Carian one. The majority of cult statues of Zeus belong to the Hellenistic age, even in areas where his cult was much older. These works conform almost in their entirety to few Hellenic models, such as Feidias’ Zeus in Olympia, whereas in the rare occasions where variations exist, it is only on a small scale. This is observed at the cult statue of the enthroned Zeus Sosipolis of the 2nd c. BC from his temple in Magnesia on Meander, which, although presenting a difference in the position of the right arm, follows the type of the gold and ivory statue of Zeus in Olympia. A variation, even on a limited scale, of the iconographic type of Zeus of Olympia in the late 2nd c. BC is the representation of the god enthroned on the eastern frieze of the Hekataion at Lagina. Contemporary is the relief of Archelaus of Priene, where a mountain operates as the throne of Zeus, who is presented here as the father of the nymphs.