1. Historical context

1.1. The policy of Michael VI Stratiotikos against the military aristocracy

Following the death of empress Theodora, the last member of the Macedonian dynasty, in August 1056, the dominant party of court dignitaries, with Leo Strabospondylos as its leader, enthroned Michael Briggas, who bore the title of military logothetes (tou stratiotikou). His enthronement aimed to preserve the interests of the entourage of Theodora who brought him to prominence. In his attempt to gain the public support, the new emperor, who was not a member of a dynasty, generously granted privileges and money to the citizens of the Capital, promoting bureaucrat civil dignitaries to high offices at the same time. Nevertheless, he refused to satisfy the demands of a delegation of military officials, with Katakalon Kekaumenos and magister Isaac Komnenos, former stratopedarches of the East, as their leaders, who visited him at Easter of 1057. The strategoi who visited Michael VI Stratiotikos were the descendants of the aristocratic families of Asia Minor who held high offices and exercised political influence at the time of Constantine IX Monomachos (1042-1055). They actually sought the titles which had been deprived of them during the short reign of Theodora.¹ Their second attempt to gain those titles, approaching Leo Strabospondylos, was equally unsuccessful.

1.2. Political and social background of the rebellion of Isaac I Komnenos

The uncompromising attitude of the new emperor against the military leadership set off the rebellion, which represents the antagonisms plaguing the empire in the middle of the 11^th century. The two opposing parties were incongruous, since they consisted of members of both the military and the civil aristocracy. Isaac Komnenos himself, the leader of the military party, was not a typical member of the provincial aristocracy. Although he was a descendant of an aristocratic family of Asia Minor, he had spent most of his life in Constantinople as a protégé of emperor Basil II (976-1025). The Dukai family, one of the most prominent members of the political aristocracy of Constantinople, supported the indignant military officers. The people of Constantinople also offered their support to the rebellion of Isaac Komnenos during its progress,² a fact which played a major part in its success. On the other hand, Michael VI was supported by the court officials who had brought him to prominence, mainly eunuchs who had gained power at the time of Michael IV Paphlagon, the self-made bureaucrats of the administration, as well as several military commanders of humble descent. The mutual goal of the two parties was to climb the ladder of hierarchy of the administration, to exercise political influence and to gain money and social status. Moreover, the military commanders aimed at playing an active role in the process of the succession to the throne, a role they had not played for the last thirty years (the fact that they did not have the chance to become involved in the election of Michael VI is indicative). They also aimed at reorganizing and strengthening the army of the empire, since the threatening presence of the Pechenegs in the Aimos peninsula and the conflicts against the Seljuks in Asia Minor called for a well-trained army without the problems accumulated by the policy of the successors of Basil II.

2. The events

2.1. Preparation of the rebellion

The refusal of Michael VI to satisfy the demands of the military commanders caused their indignation. They swore to rebel and elected Isaac Komnenos as their leader inside the church of Hagia Sophia. Then, they returned to their posts in Asia Minor and waited for the right moment. Isaac Komnenos gained the support of the nobles who had their property in the theme of Anatolikon: Michael Bourtzes, Romanos Skleros, Nikephoros Botaneiates, the sons of Basil Argyros, generals who, like Isaac himself, were suspended although they had assumed high offices at the time of Constantine IX Monomachos. The rebels encountered several difficulties in assembling their army due to the refusal of the troops of the themes of Anatolikon and Charsianon to rebel at their side. Katakalon Kekaumenos, however, managed to ensure the participation of the mercenaries under Robert Herve stationed in Asia Minor, as well as the themes of Coloneia and Chaldia. The troops of Tephrike, Sebasteia, Melitene and Paphlagonia also participated in the rebellion. The fuse of the rebellion was unintentionally offered by Nikephoros Bryennios, the general of Cappadocia and commander of the tagmata (military units) stationed in Macedonia. His spasmodic and unseasonable actions in order to place his troops at the disposal of the rebels led to his arrest and blindness. His fortune propelled the rebels to accelerate the rebellion for fear that his arrest might lead to the disclosure of the rebellion.

2.2. The rebellion

Isaac Komnenos was proclaimed emperor by the army on 8 June 1057 in Gounaria of Paphlagonia. Then, he advanced to Nicaea, which he seized without resistance, and secured a part of his military equipment.³ On 20 August the rebel army defeated the troops of Macedonia after a hard-fought battle outside Nicaea. When Michael VI heard the news about the defeat, he followed two different directions: on the one hand, he attempted to keep the support of the people of Constantinople by granting anew titles and money. On the other, he attempted (24 August 1057) to approach the usurper by sending a delegation consisting of Constantine Leichoudes, Theodore Alopos and Michaie Psellos to propose a compromise. Isaac Komnenos was offered full amnesty and the title of caesar, which ensured his succession to the throne following the death of Michael VI. When Isaac refused, the delegates offered him the title of co-emperor, as well as the granting of high offices to his associates. At the same time, the party of the supporters of the rebellion in Constantinople, consisting of senators, higher officials and guilds approached patriarch Michael Keroularios and ensured his cooperation. Riots broke out in Constantinople and the residences of the supporters of Michael VI were looted. The patriarch, organizing the riots from Hagia Sophia, proclaimed Isaac emperor and notified him to come to Constantinople. At the same time, he asked Michael VI to resign from the throne. The latter, realizing that he had lost his last hope, the support of the people of Constantinople, and wishing to prevent any further bloodshed, retired in order to become a monk. On 31 August 1057 Katakalon Kekaumenos seized the palace. A few hours later, Isaac Komnenos entered Constantinople. He was crowned by the patriarch in Hagia Sophia the following day (1 September 1057).

3. Consequences

The success of the rebellion of Isaac Komnenos had as a direct consequence his succession to the throne and the granting of high offices and privileges to his main associates. Michael Keroularios became the first patriarch with the right to appoint the priests in Hagia Sophia as a reward for his support. Katakalon Kekaumenos, John Komnenos and Nikephoros Bryennios were honoured with the title of kouropalates (higher court official). The aims of the rebels were fulfilled. Apart from their personal success, they managed to succeed where many other rebels had failed during the last thirty years: the ascent of a military officer to the throne. The victory of Isaac Komnenos changed the facts of the administration of power, albeit for a short period of time. In December 1059 Isaac I Komnenos resigned in favour of his old comrade Constantine Doukas. The rebellion led to the forging of a temporary alliance between members of the political aristocracy, noble military officials and the people against an emperor whose enthronement satisfied the needs of the eunuchs of the court in difficult times for the territorial integrity of the empire, times which called for a strong military leader.

The consequences of the rebellion on the defence of the eastern borders of the empire were long-term. The participation of the greatest part of the thematic troops of Asia Minor in the rebellion of Isaac Komnenos weakened the defence of the eastern provinces and gave the chance to the Turkmens under emir Dinar to invade the lands of Asia Minor. In October 1057 they pillaged the region of Coloneia and seized Melitene, which led to its total destruction and the capture of a large part of its population.